1.
Dialectic
of Enlightenment
(a)
What is "Enlightenment"?
Enlightenment refers with cognitive process that brings
additional knowledge. Knowledge helps to reduce fear. Usually there is a fear
of unknown due to lack of knowledge that gives birth of risk. When there is
adequate knowledge the risk is reduced and you have better control. For better
understanding authors used a very good example, ‘the supernatural spirits, ghosts or demons are taken to be reflections
of human beings who allow themselves to be frightened by natural phenomena.’
The concept of enlightenment is to eliminate these self-created fears by enhancing
the rational knowledge.
On the other hand in order to anticipate lack of
knowledge humans can develop myths and beliefs that can be based on their
previous experiences or perception. This additional knowledge helps to further clarify
or reject the myths or believes that exist.
(b)
What is "dialectic"?
Dialect is the method of argument that helps to find
the right opinion. The basic purpose is to resolve the disagreement between two
parties or persons through rational discussion. It may not be possible to reach
to absolute truth but there are ways and logics that lead us closer to the
truth.
(c)
What is "nominalism" and
why is it an important concept in the text?
The way I understood nominalization is that it brings
relativity to reality. There are illogical things that are being used to give
birth to logic and we made them absolute to make a basic structure. For example
why A is called A is illogical but later this principal helps to create logical
use of this letter. Same is the case for digits. Similarly there could be
things around us that doesn’t exist and we have created them to bring more
logic and methods to our world.
(d)
What is the meaning and
function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?
Myths are the stories that we have created to fill the
gap of knowledge. Myths could be leading misleading half true as well. But in
all the cases myths are there, pointing that there is a lack of knowledge. So
myth indicate the absence of knowledge and creates attention. Adorno and
Horkiemer has also argued that enlightenment is a process that lead to clarity of
these myths and clear the way to truth.
2.
"The Work of Art in the Age of Technical
Reproductivity"
(a)
In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin
talks about the relation between "superstructure" and
"substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What do the
concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this
context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist
perspective?
I understand from the text, ‘substructure’ is directly
connected to the general production such as machines, factories, tools etc.
‘Superstructure’ is ideology for the general production such as concepts, laws,
reasons etc. As mentioned in text that superstructure takes place very slowly
than the substructure so it is important that substructures (which prepare the
base or ground for general production) must met the superstructures (ideology,
constitute). In the context of art film, photography, paintings are the forms
of substructure and conventional ideology behind them is superstructure. In a
Marxist perspective, substructure is base which forces the feasible work
conditions and technically division of labour, and in these conditions cultural
production takes place which is necessary for people’s life. And superstructure
is cultural ideology such as rules, politics etc. which often influence the base.
For example any culture is built on some core values that are very hard to
change but bringing minor changes to any culture or slow transition is easier.
(b)
Does culture have revolutionary potentials
(according to Benjamin)? If so, describe these potentials. Does Benjamin's
perspective differ from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer in this
regard?
In my opinion the concept of enlightenment is the
concept that can revolutionize a society. So yes, culture has revolutionary
potentials. As enlightenment leads to further clarity of unclear or the
knowledge about unknown can raise the awareness to change the logics that are
wrong. So in case if there will be enlightenment toward the elements of
subcultures then subculture will change but the basic structure of the society
will still be same. On the other hand if there will be higher enlightenment
towards the superstructures of the society there could be revolution on a
greater scale. In this way, Benjamin's
perspective is not different from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer.
(c)
Benjamin discusses how people perceive the
world through the senses and argues that this perception can be both naturally
and historically determined. What does this mean? Give some examples of
historically determined perception (from Benjamin's essay and/or other
contexts).
As I understand this concept historically perceived, perceptions
are the ones that were conceived on the basis of natural senses first. The perception
may have been combined with individual cognitive abilities but later these
perceptions developed as the people shared each other’s views and opinions and
the process of cognition went on for a time that further lead to developments
in perceptions.
For example as Benjamin explained this concept with example
of Roman art that, how not only the culture changed but human being’s
perception changed too about Roman art industry.
(d)
What does Benjamin mean by the term
"aura"? Are there different kinds of aura in natural objects compared
to art objects?
As I understand what Aura means is, if we see things
from some distance we may have a picture of them that include some of their
shadows or reflections that can be differ from actual picture. What we will see
also include some other elements because of distance. Though, the term ‘aura’
refers to the uniqueness of object. I think natural aura (objects) cannot be
changed because of its natural characteristics and facts. On the other hand,
artistic aura can be shaped as per modern necessities.
